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BMC Public Health volume 25, Article number: 460 (2025)
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Depression is a common mental health issue affecting volunteers, which directly impacts the quality of services they provide. This study investigates the unique aspects of volunteer depression and analyzes the roles of volunteer credits, stigmatization, personality traits, and motivations in influencing depression levels. Data were collected from a survey of 822 volunteers from the Red Cross in Hubei Province, China. The results indicate that higher volunteer credits significantly reduced depression scores, while increased stigmatization was associated with higher depression levels. Personality traits such as agreeableness and conscientiousness helped mitigate the negative effects of stigmatization, while openness exacerbated its impact. Furthermore, volunteers driven by understanding and value expression were more susceptible to the adverse effects of stigmatization. The findings highlight the importance of improving volunteer mental health by enhancing team trust and reducing stigmatization. Although the large sample size strengthens the study, the cross-sectional design limits causal inference. Overall, the study underscores the importance of understanding personality traits and motivations in developing effective volunteer support measures, thereby enhancing service quality and community well-being.
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Depression has become a widespread mental health issue that affects various population groups [1], with a lifetime prevalence of approximately 6.8% among adults in China [2]. The mental health status of volunteers warrants particular attention. Volunteers, as an essential part of the social support network, play an indispensable role in addressing societal needs and promoting community development [3, 4]. They are typically defined as individuals who engage in social service or public welfare activities without receiving financial compensation [5]. While volunteering can offer positive benefits, such as a sense of achievement and personal fulfillment [6,7,8,9], volunteers may also face significant psychological stress due to work pressures, interpersonal conflicts, and organizational expectations. These negative factors may undermine the positive effects of volunteering and could potentially lead to adverse psychological outcomes, such as the onset of depressive symptoms [10, 11]. Given the critical role of volunteers in social services and the unique challenges they face, focusing on volunteer mental health is especially important. This not only helps to understand the psychological well-being of this distinctive group but also provides empirical evidence for designing targeted support measures and intervention strategies.
The perceptions associated with volunteering, both credits and stigmas, significantly influence volunteers’ mental health [12]. Credits refer to the recognition and positive evaluations volunteers receive for their contributions, such as being perceived as compassionate, altruistic, or socially responsible [13]. These credits enhance volunteers’ self-esteem and sense of accomplishment, serving as a buffer against psychological stress and reducing the likelihood of depression [14, 15]. However, stigmas arise when volunteering is perceived negatively, such as being seen as a form of impression management or as a distraction from other responsibilities. These negative attributions can undermine the value of volunteers’ efforts, increase psychological stress, and elevate the risk of depression [16].
While the direct effects of credits and stigmas on mental health are significant, their specific influence may be moderated by personality traits and motivational factors. Personality traits include five core dimensions: conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, openness, and neuroticism [17]. Neuroticism, as a risk factor for depression, may exacerbate the negative effects of stigmas, whereas protective traits such as extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness may amplify the positive effects of credits [18,19,20]. Additionally, motivational factors may also moderate the psychological well-being of volunteers [21]. These include intrinsic motivations (e.g., altruism and self-fulfillment) and extrinsic motivations (e.g., social recognition and career development). Intrinsic motivations may alleviate the negative impact of stigmas on mental health, while extrinsic motivations may enhance the protective effects of credits on psychological well-being [22].
Although previous research has explored the positive impact of volunteering on mental health, most studies have focused on the overall benefits of volunteering, with very few indicating no correlation between volunteering and health outcomes [23], and none examining the specific mechanisms related to credits and stigmas [24]. Existing literature also offers limited insights into how personality traits and motivations moderate these relationships. Furthermore, current studies primarily rely on broad social support theories, lacking an in-depth exploration of the unique social contexts of volunteering [25]. To address these gaps, this study integrates credits and stigmas into research on depression and incorporates the moderating roles of personality traits and motivations. A theoretical framework (Fig. 1) has been constructed to propose the following hypotheses:
1. Credits in volunteer work serve as a protective factor against depression, while stigmas act as a risk factor.
2. This relationship will be moderated by Volunteer Service Motivation and Personality Traits.
Theoretical model of the modulating effect of motivation and personality traits
By examining the interactions among these variables, we aim to better understand the psychological challenges faced by volunteers. This understanding will provide empirical evidence to enhance volunteers’ mental health and social harmony. Our goal is to uncover the complex nature and multiple influencing factors of volunteer depression, which is crucial for designing effective interventions and providing necessary support and resources to volunteers. Ultimately, this will promote the personal well-being of volunteers, improve the quality of their service, and have a positive impact on society.
Hubei Province, as a significant central region of China, was chosen as the study site due to its extensive volunteer network and active participation in community development. This province is home to a highly engaged population, with the Red Cross Society of Hubei Province having developed 16,000 grassroots organizations, 8,460 volunteer service organizations, and 240,000 volunteers as of June 2024 [26].
A structured questionnaire was used to collect sample information in this study, which was adapted from existing tools and covered demographic sociological characteristics, health-related behaviors, motivations for volunteer service, and psychological health outcomes. Given that volunteers are managed through WeChat groups and geographically dispersed, the study utilized self-administered online surveys to ensure broad participation. To minimize response bias, several strategies were implemented: (1) a standardized survey protocol was established to ensure consistency in data collection. (2)clear and concise instructions were provided to participants, and follow-up reminders were sent to encourage accurate and timely responses.
The questionnaire was disseminated in volunteer management groups between September 2023 and January 2024. A total of 1,140 online responses were received. After excluding questionnaires with missing key indicators, 822 responses were deemed valid, yielding an effective response rate of 72%. To assess the validity of the study, the demographic and sociological characteristics of respondents before and after data exclusion were compared. No significant differences were found, indicating the representativeness of the final sample.
All participants provided informed consent prior to completing the questionnaire. The informed consent form outlined the purpose of the study, the rights of participants, how the data would be used, and the privacy protection measures in place. Participation was voluntary, and participants had the right to withdraw at any time without any negative consequences. All data collected were kept confidential and were used solely for the analysis related to this study.
This study utilized the Chinese version of the Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS) to assess the level of depression among volunteers [27]. The SDS is a straightforward self-assessment tool designed to quantify the severity of depressive symptoms. In China, this scale has been widely applied and has demonstrated good reliability and validity, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient about 0.8, accurately capturing the depressive experiences of subjects [28, 29]. In this study, analysis of the sample data revealed that the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the SDS was 0.97, and the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) value was 0.98, further confirming the high reliability and validity of the scale. The scale consists of 20 items, each rated on a severity scale from 1 to 4. The standard score is obtained by summing the scores of the positive and negative items and multiplying by 1.25 (rounding to the nearest whole number). According to the Chinese norm, a standard score ranging from 25 to 53 is considered non-depressive, while a score above 53 indicates the presence of depressive symptoms.
We utilized the Volunteering Credits and Stigmas Scale (VCSS), developed by Jessica B. Rodell and colleagues in 2016, to assess volunteers’ trust and flaws. This scale is designed to obtain a more specific appraisal of reputation based on colleagues’ perceptions of volunteering behaviors. Rooted in the perspective of reputation, it employs interpersonal perception and attribution theory to explore how colleagues assess employees’ volunteer activities and how these assessments predict the actual treatment of employees who frequently engage in volunteer activities [12]. It further identifies the positive and negative components, revealing how these dimensions influence the employee’s reputation and interactions among colleagues in the workplace. The study employs this scale to reflect the positive and negative perceptions within the volunteer groups of the participants [30]. The scale comprises 32 items, divided into sections for volunteer trust and flaws, with each item rated on a scale from 1 to 5 based on the degree of agreement with the description. The credit subscale demonstrated a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.91 and a KMO value of 0.93, while the VCSS-stigmas subscale had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.89 and a KMO value of 0.89, indicating high reliability and validity of the scale. Final scoring yields scores for volunteer trust and flaws. By having the volunteers themselves complete this questionnaire, it reflects their perceptions of team members during the collaborative process within the volunteer team (i.e., volunteer credits and stigma).
This study employed the Chinese version of the Simplified Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) to assess the personality traits of volunteers. This scale is a convenient self-assessment tool designed to quantify the personality traits of participants [31]. Originating from a large cohort study conducted in China—the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS)—it possesses good reliability and validity, accurately capturing the various personality traits of subjects [32]. The questionnaire consists of 15 items, with each item rated on a scale from 1 to 5 based on the intensity of the trait. The reliability and validity of the scale are supported by a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.70 and a KMO value of 0.77. Final scores are aggregated to derive scores across five personality dimensions, including conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, openness, and neuroticism.
The Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI) was utilized to assess the motivations of volunteers. Developed by Gil Clary et al. in 1998, the scale employs functional analysis to study volunteer motivations, proposing and validating six types of motivations, including values-expression, understanding-learning, social, career, protective, and enhancement [33]. The inventory comprises 30 items, each rated on a scale from 1 to 7 based on the degree of agreement with the description, using the total score under each dimension to reflect the status of that dimension. The VFI has demonstrated overall reliability and validity among the Chinese population, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients about 0.98 and a KMO value of 0.97 for the overall scale [34].
Based on preliminary research findings, significant demographic and sociological variables such as age, gender, education, occupation, religious beliefs, and regional economic levels were incorporated into the study. Additionally, key behavioral variables related to mental health, namely smoking and drinking, were included as covariates to control for the impact of these important variables on the model.
Current research on the distribution of volunteers in this region remains scarce. Therefore, we first conducted descriptive statistics on the collected samples to obtain proportions of the distribution or mean scores and standard deviations from the scales, enabling observation of their distribution characteristics.
This analysis examines the relationships between the scale scores included in the study and sociodemographic factors or health behaviors to identify potential influencing factors on mental health. Additionally, correlations among different dimensions of the scales are analyzed to preliminarily ascertain the interrelationships between the scales, thereby assessing the conditions of the hypothesized model.
Negative binomial regression was selected due to the overdispersion observed in the depression scores. Traditional regression models such as Poisson regression were unsuitable as the variance exceeded the mean, a condition effectively addressed by negative binomial regression. This approach allowed for a more accurate estimation of relationships between variables while accounting for the distributional characteristics of the data. Initially, we modeled depression based on sociodemographic characteristics as Model 0. On this basis, dimensions of perceived trust and flaws within volunteer teams were included to preliminarily assess their impact on depression. Subsequently, personality traits and volunteering motives were incorporated to form Models 2 and 3, respectively. Finally, all covariates and scales were included to establish the comprehensive Model 4. Based on Model 4, quantitative data were dichotomized, and categorical variables were merged as necessary for subgroup analysis. Negative binomial regression was then applied separately within different categories to evaluate the impact of perceived volunteer team dynamics on depression, further assessing the modulatory effects.
Building on the theoretical model established earlier, moderation effect models for personality traits and volunteer motivation were developed based on Model 4. In this analysis, we included interaction terms for all personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness) and volunteer motivations (self-enhancement, knowledge understanding, career, protective psychology, socialization, value expression). After centering all variables, these interactions were incorporated into the corresponding negative binomial regression models to explore potential moderating effects on how perceived volunteer trust and flaws influence depression.
All analyses were based on R version 4.2.3, with all hypotheses testing levels set at 0.05.
In this study, a total of 822 volunteers were included for analysis. Table 1 displays their distribution characteristics. The average age of the volunteers was 41.38 ± 8.64 years, with 237 males (28.83%) primarily of Han ethnicity, accounting for 747 individuals (90.88%). A distinctive feature of the surveyed volunteers is that the majority are employed in government-related positions (511 individuals, 62.17%), and 235 volunteers (28.59%) have religious beliefs. Economically, 309 volunteers (37.59%) are from Hubei Province, which has a relatively low economic level (per capita GDP below $10,000 in 2022), while 343 individuals (42.73%) come from regions with a medium economic level (per capita GDP greater than $10,000 but less than $20,000).
Depression scores were measured using the SDS scale, with an average score of 45.60 ± 10.45. The mean score for the Volunteering Credits and Stigmas Scale (VCSS) was 113.87 ± 11.94. This scale is divided into two parts: Volunteer Trust (V_Credits) scored 63.03 ± 6.69, and Volunteer Stigmas (V_Stigmas) scored 50.84 ± 9.28. The overall personality trait score (SPQ_Score) was 52.58 ± 4.52. Volunteer motivation was assessed using the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI). The total VFI score (VFI_Score) was 152.23 ± 26.35. Detailed scores for each dimension are presented in Table 2.
To assess the influencing factors for each scale, univariate analyses were conducted across different categories to identify potential confounders for each scale. The results indicated significant differences across various psychological and motivational measurement indices based on gender, ethnicity, educational level, occupational type, religious beliefs, smoking and drinking habits, and regional economic levels.
Notably, educational level (p < 0.001), occupational type (p < 0.01), religious beliefs (p < 0.001), smoking (p < 0.001), drinking (p < 0.001), and regional economic level (p < 0.001) were associated with depression scores. All included sociodemographic characteristics and health behaviors showed associations with perceived volunteer trust and flaws. Similarly, personality traits and volunteer motivations also had various connections with the aforementioned variables. Detailed results are presented in Table 3.
The correlation analysis between the different dimensions within various scales revealed a high level of internal correlation, indicating good internal validity of the questionnaires. Between scales, there was a negative correlation between volunteer trust and depression scores (r = -0.149, p < 0.001), and a positive correlation between volunteer flaws and depression scores (r = 0.465, p < 0.001). Personality traits were all associated with depression scores; notably, neuroticism was positively correlated with depression, while other traits were negatively correlated with depression (p < 0.01). Regarding volunteer motivation, self-enhancement and knowledge understanding motivations were negatively correlated with depression scores (p < 0.05). These findings preliminarily confirm the study’s hypotheses regarding the relationships between the included variables and depression.
The analysis revealed associations between various personality traits and volunteer motivations with volunteer trust. Except for extroversion, all personality traits and volunteer motivations also showed associations with volunteer flaws. These findings support further investigation into our model. Detailed correlations are presented in Table 4.
In the negative binomial regression analysis of depression scores (SDS_Score), we developed five models (Model0 to Model4), each sequentially incorporating different covariates to investigate our hypotheses. The outcomes are presented in Table 5. Model 1, after controlling for sociodemographic characteristics and health behaviors, indicated that volunteer trust had an odds ratio (OR) of 0.994 ([95% CI: 0.992, 0.996], P < 0.001), while volunteer flaws showed an OR of 1.009 ([95% CI: 1.008, 1.011],P < 0.001), suggesting an initial impact of volunteer team cooperation. Further incorporation of personality traits in Model 2 revealed that the OR for neuroticism was 1.018 (95% CI: 1.011, 1.024), P < 0.001; for extraversion, OR was 0.989 ([95% CI: 0.982, 0.996],P = 0.001); and for conscientiousness, OR was 0.984 ([95% CI: 0.977, 0.991], P < 0.001). Both volunteer trust and flaws remained significant.
Building on Model 1, by incorporating volunteer motivations, Model 3 showed that protective psychological motivation (OR = 1.005 [95% CI: 1.001, 1.009], P = 0.017) and value-expressive motivation (OR = 0.991 [95% CI: 0.986, 0.996], P < 0.001) influenced depression, with volunteer trust and flaws still showing significance.
Finally, combining Models 2 and 3, Model 4 revealed that neuroticism (OR = 1.019 [95% CI: 1.012, 1.025], P < 0.001), extraversion (OR = 0.991 [95% CI: 0.984, 0.998), P = 0.009], and conscientiousness (OR = 0.986 [95% CI: 0.979, 0.993], P < 0.001) in personality traits, and value-expressive motivation (OR = 0.993 [95% CI: 0.988, 0.998], P = 0.004) in volunteer motivations significantly affected depression. At this stage, the impact of volunteer trust on depression was no longer significant (OR = 0.998 [95% CI: 0.996, 1], P = 0.084), whereas volunteer flaws (OR = 1.008 [95% CI: 1.006, 1.009], P < 0.001) continued to affect depression scores.
In summary, as shown in Fig. 2, the effects of credits and stigmas on depression scores were compared across different models. Except for credits in Models 3 and 4, all effects were significant. Credits were associated with a reduction in depression scores, while stigmas were associated with an increase in depression scores.
Comparison effects of credits and stigmas across models
Based on the subgroup analysis in Model 4 (controlling for all covariates), the results revealed that volunteer trust influences depression scores in certain demographic and behavioral categories. Specifically, it was significant among those with an educational level of college or below (OR = 0.996 [95% CI: 0.993, 0.999], P = 0.019), individuals employed in the public sector (OR = 0.996 [95% CI: 0.993, 0.999], P = 0.002), and non-smokers (OR = 0.997 [95% CI: 0.995, 1.000], P = 0.027). Regarding personality traits, lower neuroticism (OR = 0.997 [95% CI: 0.994, 1.000], P = 0.025) and lower agreeableness (OR = 0.997 [95% CI: 0.995, 1.000], P = 0.043) were associated with the impact of volunteer trust on depression. Within volunteer motivations, high knowledge understanding (OR = 0.996 [95% CI: 0.993, 1.000], P = 0.028), low career motivation (OR = 0.997 [95% CI: 0.995, 1.000], P = 0.033), and low value-expressive motivation (OR = 0.996 [95% CI: 0.994, 0.999], P = 0.004) also showed an impact. Volunteer flaws, however, were associated with depression scores across all categories examined. Specific details are presented in Fig. 3.
Subgroup Analysis of Voluntary Credits and Stigmas on Depression
Further analysis was conducted on Model 4 to explore the modulating effects of personality traits and volunteer motivation on how volunteer trust and flaws influence depression. The results (in Table 6) indicated that conscientiousness (SPQ_C) significantly reduced depression scores when interacting with volunteer trust (β = -0.002, P = 0.001). Similarly, agreeableness (SPQ_A) also showed a significant reduction in depression scores through its interaction with volunteer trust (β = -0.002, P = 0.005). Conversely, the interaction of openness (SPQ_O) with volunteer flaws significantly increased depression scores (β = 0.001, P = 0.001).
Regarding volunteer motivation, the interaction between knowledge understanding (VFI_U) and volunteer flaws significantly enhanced depression scores (β < 0.001, P = 0.007), while the interaction between value expression (VFI_V) and volunteer flaws also significantly increased depression scores (β = 0.001, P = 0.002). Further analysis of these interactions illustrated their modulating effects, and simple slope graphs were created. As shown in Fig. 4, the effect of volunteer deficits on depression scores intensified with increasing scores on the openness (SPQ_O) personality trait, knowledge understanding (VFI_U), or values expression (VFI_V) motivation. In contrast, the effect of volunteer trust on depression diminished with increasing scores for agreeableness (SPQ_A) and conscientiousness (SPQ_C).
Interaction Effects Plot between Volunteer Trust/Stigmas and Motivational Factors (Significant variables)
This study explored the influence of volunteer credits and stigmas on depression, focusing on the moderating effects of personality traits and motivations. Our findings reveal that while volunteer credits reduce depression, stigmas exacerbate it. Furthermore, personality traits such as agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness, as well as motivations like value expression and understanding, play a significant moderating role in shaping these relationships.
The study revealed that most volunteers hold government-related positions, have high educational attainment, and enjoy stable economic statuses—factors that likely influence their mental health and motivation to participate in volunteer activities. The average depression score among volunteers was low, with the mean score below the critical threshold for depression in the Chinese population (53 points), indicating that most volunteers are in good mental health. However, factors such as educational level, occupational type, religious beliefs, and regional economic status were significantly associated with depression scores. Specifically, higher education levels, more stable occupations, without religious beliefs, and higher regional economic status were linked to lower levels of depression. This highlights the important impact of sociodemographic characteristics on mental health, consistent with previous research on depression factors [35]. However, the association between regional economic status and depression among volunteers may also be influenced by their occupations, as most volunteers in this study are employed in government-related positions, and their income is positively correlated with the local economic level [36].
Volunteer credits are negatively associated with depression scores, while stigmas are positively associated with depression scores. This finding supports the research hypothesis that a sense of trust within the team can alleviate depression, whereas feelings of stigmatization may exacerbate depression. Credits are seen here as a form of social support that enhance an individual’s sense of belonging, self-esteem and self-efficacy. When volunteers have a high level of credibility in the team, they may feel more social connectedness and recognition, and these positive social interactions can provide emotional support and reduce stress, which can reduce the occurrence of depression [37, 38]. Volunteer stigmas, on the other hand, may exacerbate depressive symptoms by weakening an individual’s position in a team, reducing the support they receive, and increasing job stress and uncertainty. In addition, perceived stigmas may cause individuals to feel ashamed or disrespected, feelings that have been shown to be positively associated with depression [39, 40].
Neuroticism is identified as a risk factor for depression, while extraversion and conscientiousness are protective factors. Volunteers with high neuroticism were more susceptible to depressive symptoms, consistent with previous research linking neuroticism to increased psychological stress and negative emotions [41, 42]. Individuals with high neuroticism often exhibit heightened sensitivity to external stimuli and emotional instability, potentially amplifying the impact of negative events, particularly the stress and lack of appreciation sometimes encountered in volunteer activities. These factors may increase psychological burdens and elevate the risk of depression [43].
In contrast, extraversion and conscientiousness provide significant protective effects against depression. Extraverted volunteers, characterized by their strong social orientation, benefit from positive social interactions and emotional support, which help alleviate psychological stress and reduce the risk of depression. Conscientious volunteers, on the other hand, enhance their resilience through effective time management, goal-directed behavior, and a strong sense of responsibility, thereby mitigating the impact of negative emotions. These traits likely modulate individuals’ responses to stressful events, thereby decreasing the likelihood of depression [44]. These findings not only align with existing literature but also resonate with neurobiological theories. For instance, studies have shown that brain structures such as the amygdala and putamen play critical roles in stress and reward processing. Individuals with high neuroticism may exhibit heightened reactivity in these regions, increasing their vulnerability to depression [45, 46]. Notably, extraversion and conscientiousness exert protective effects through distinct mechanisms: extraversion primarily facilitates emotional regulation and social support, while conscientiousness promotes behavioral control and goal management. This suggests that different personality traits may influence mental health through unique pathways.
Among volunteer motivations, value-expressive motivation showed a significant negative correlation with depression scores, indicating that volunteers who participate in activities to express personal values have better mental health. This intrinsic motivation likely provides a sense of meaning and satisfaction, reducing psychological stress [47]. It suggests that value-expressive motivation can effectively lower the risk of depression by enhancing volunteers’ psychological resilience and self-identity. This finding further supports the critical role of motivation in mental health. While other motivations, such as self-enhancement and understanding, did not show significant protective effects in the final model, they may still impact mental health through enhancing self-efficacy and providing psychological satisfaction. For instance, self-enhancement motivation may alleviate depression by boosting self-efficacy, aligning with prior research emphasizing the positive impact of self-efficacy on mental health. Similarly, understanding motivation may offer psychological satisfaction through the acquisition of new skills and knowledge. The learning and application of these skills in volunteer activities can help volunteers perceive personal growth, thereby reducing psychological stress [48].
This study found that personality traits significantly moderate the effects of volunteer credits and stigmas on depression. Specifically, agreeableness and conscientiousness enhanced the protective effects of volunteer credits, while openness intensified the negative effects of stigmas.
Conscientiousness plays a critical role in alleviating depression (β = -0.002, P = 0.001). Conscientious volunteers typically exhibit high levels of organization, responsibility, and self-discipline, enabling them to address stressors in volunteer activities in a more proactive and structured manner. Specifically, highly conscientious volunteers are more likely to keep commitments, systematically plan tasks, and execute them efficiently, thereby reducing uncertainties and psychological burdens associated with volunteering. Additionally, conscientiousness helps volunteers derive a stronger sense of value from team trust. This positive feedback mechanism, driven by organization and goal-directed behavior, significantly lowers the risk of depression. These findings align with theories suggesting that conscientiousness is associated with lower stress responses and stronger emotional regulation [49].
Agreeableness also enhances the protective effects of volunteer credits (β = -0.002, P = 0.005). Agreeable volunteers are known for their strong collaborative abilities, empathy, and social skills, which make them more likely to build positive relationships with team members. When team trust is high, agreeable volunteers gain emotional support and recognition, fostering a heightened sense of belonging and security, which significantly alleviates depressive symptoms. Furthermore, agreeableness enables volunteers to derive more positive emotional experiences from volunteering, further reducing psychological stress [50].
Compared to agreeableness and conscientiousness, the role of openness in volunteer activities is more complex. Research indicates that volunteers with higher openness are more sensitive to the negative effects of stigmas (β = 0.001, P = 0.001). Open individuals are typically more attuned to new experiences and environmental nuances, which may lead them to pay closer attention to interpersonal dynamics and feedback within the team. When they perceive stigmatization, these negative experiences are more likely to be internalized, exacerbating depressive symptoms. Additionally, volunteers with high openness often have higher expectations of team interactions, making the psychological disappointment and uncertainty caused by stigmatization more impactful [51].
These findings underscore the importance of considering individual personality traits when designing support measures and intervention strategies for volunteers. Tailored support based on personality traits, such as providing greater team trust and emotional support for agreeable and conscientious volunteers, or offering training to reduce the sensitivity of open volunteers to stigmatization, can more effectively safeguard volunteers’ mental health, enhance their service quality, and improve their overall well-being.
Volunteer motivation significantly moderates the impact of stigmas on depression, with understanding motivation and value-expression motivation intensifying the negative effects of stigmatization. This finding highlights the complex influence mechanisms of different types of volunteer motivations on mental health.
Understanding motivation refers to the desire of volunteers to gain knowledge and skills through their service. Volunteers with strong understanding motivation experience greater psychological loss when facing stigmatization (β = 0.001, P = 0.007), as it conflicts with their high expectations and deep involvement in volunteer activities. These volunteers often aim to enhance themselves, acquire new knowledge and skills, and gain recognition and respect within the team through volunteer service. However, stigmatization disrupts these expectations, leading to stronger psychological loss and frustration. Moreover, since understanding-motivated volunteers tend to focus more on their performance and progress within the team, negative evaluations or stigmatization may cause them to feel that their efforts and abilities are not adequately recognized. This diminishes their self-efficacy, increases negative emotions, and significantly raises the risk of depression [52].
Value-expression motivation refers to the intrinsic motivation to express personal values and beliefs through volunteer activities. Research shows that volunteers with high value-expression motivation are at a significantly higher risk of depression when facing stigmatization (β = 0.001, P = 0.002). This suggests that challenges to their core values posed by negative evaluations within the team can trigger intense emotional distress. These volunteers often view volunteering as a reflection of their self-worth and values. When they perceive stigmatization, such negative evaluations not only impact their core values but also undermine their psychological security, leading to heightened psychological stress. Additionally, value-expression-motivated volunteers typically seek recognition and a sense of belonging within the team. The presence of stigmatization erodes their recognition and belonging, exacerbating emotional distress and depressive symptoms [53].
In volunteer teams, mitigating these negative effects requires careful consideration of the characteristics of different motivation types. For volunteers with strong understanding motivation, providing more learning opportunities and positive feedback to meet their growth needs may help alleviate psychological stress. For those with high value-expression motivation, reducing stigmatization within the team and enhancing team support can better protect their mental health.
This study is one of the few to focus on the mental health of Red Cross volunteers, providing a comprehensive analysis of the effects of volunteer credits and stigmatization, personality traits, and volunteer motivations on depression. This multivariate analysis offers a holistic perspective, allowing us to understand how these factors collectively influence volunteer mental health. Additionally, the large sample size of 822 volunteers increases the statistical power and representativeness of the study, making the findings more reliable and generalizable. The study employed multiple validated scales to measure depression, personality traits, and volunteer motivations, ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data. Using a negative binomial regression moderation effect model, the study provided detailed insights into the moderating effects of personality traits and volunteer motivations on the relationship between volunteer credits and stigmas and depression, revealing more complex interactions.
This study used a cross-sectional design, which limits the ability to determine causal relationships, particularly in interpreting the moderating effects of personality traits and motivations. For instance, it remains unclear whether high agreeableness results in lower depression or whether lower depression reinforces higher agreeableness, as this study cannot definitively determine causality. Additionally, the data primarily relied on self-reported questionnaires from volunteers, which may introduce social desirability bias or self-report bias. Sensitive issues, such as depressive symptoms or perceived stigmatization, may be influenced by volunteers’ tendency to provide socially desirable responses. The sample was drawn from a specific group of volunteers (e.g., those in government-related positions), who may have greater stability and social support. As a result, the findings may not be fully generalizable to a broader volunteer population. While this study considered multiple variables, other potential factors (such as social support, work environment, and personal life stress) could influence volunteer depression levels.
The results of this study emphasize the need to consider the complex effects of personality traits and volunteer motivations when designing support measures and intervention strategies for volunteers. Understanding these factors can help us more effectively support volunteers, improve their service quality, and enhance their personal well-being. Finally improve the society and the community.
This study explored the impact of volunteer credits and stigmatization, personality traits, and volunteer motivations on volunteer depression, revealing the complex interactions among these factors in volunteer mental health. Volunteer credits significantly protect against depression, while stigmatization may exacerbate it. These findings suggest that targeted support for volunteers, especially those with high neuroticism or low trust within their teams, could reduce depression rates. Furthermore, enhancing volunteer motivation through meaningful recognition may mitigate the negative effects of stigmas on mental health.
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
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This research was supported by the Hubei Population Welfare Foundation (Grant number: CSJ-1–2022-222).
Juntao Chen and Yifan Zhang contributed equally to this work.
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
Juntao Chen, Yifan Zhang & Lu Ma
Institute for the Prevention and Treatment of Chronic Diseases, Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, China
Suhua Zhou, Chenlu Yang & Shuzhen Zhu
Hubei Provincial Red Cross Society, Wuhan, China
Lianghua Li
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J.C. and Y.Z. wrote the main manuscript text. J.C. also performed data curation, developed the methodology, handled software development, and conducted formal analysis. S.Z. (Suhua Zhou) provided resources and supervision. C.Y. and L.L. carried out the investigation and contributed to resources. L.M. contributed to writing—review and editing. S.Z. (Shuzhen Zhu) acquired funding, managed the project administration, and contributed to writing—review and editing. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.
Correspondence to Shuzhen Zhu.
This study was approved by the relevant ethics committee (Sunshine Mental Health Foundation Ethics Committee, CSJ-1–2022-222). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants.
All authors have given their consent for the publication of this manuscript. If applicable, all participants have provided consent for the publication of any associated data.
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Chen, J., Zhang, Y., Zhou, S. et al. The influence of credits and stigmas in volunteering on depression, the modulating effects of volunteer personality and motivation. BMC Public Health 25, 460 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-21727-2
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